Cultural Studies
This paper published in the Journal Texere vol. II Shawwal 1424 AH / December 2003 AD with the title "Cultural Studies; Space Poststrukturalisme contestation". This paper is an introduction to the discussion paper Cultural Studies, a kind of miscellany
Cultural Studies, what the hell?
Recently, cultural studies into the phenomena of interest to glance, this is due to cultural studies and became one of the bet is an important approach in an effort to understand the various changes that are happening. As a building investigation, this study would have a formation that distinguishes the building with other disciplines of study.
Since the outbreak of this phenomenon in the 1960s, especially after the establishment of the Birmingham Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies (founded in 1964) (1), such studies are then developed in various parts of the world with a wide range of variants, according to the needs and also due to the input of the latest theories. Because it precisely, then this study by Grossberg describes as a method of interdisciplinary studies, cross-, trans-and even anti-discipline.
With such a nature that this study will be a bit tricky for the understood, this term refers to several things at once. According to Melani Budianta, based on some introductory books and anthologies of cultural studies, can be taken to include some understanding; First, cultural studies is a genealogy or history of the origins of which trace the cultural theories of Mathew Arnold to posmodern theories. Second, cultural studies refers to a wide range of contemporary cultural studies with the theory and different approaches, and the last one, Third, cultural studies is a connotation of the agenda and the orientation of a group of scientists who are not covered in a coherent and explicit.
Third is the notion that later became the reference point for Melani Budianta to restrict the domain of this study claim that cultural studies memperlajari various processes, and forms of cultural expression as a product of modern society, so closely related to the social dimension, economic and political. Thus, the ordinary becomes something of this study will be extended area of science, technology, psychology, sociology and apatah again anthropology.
Meanwhile, Amaradani (2) says that cultural studies focusing on the relationship between social relations with the meanings. Cultural studies trying to find explanations of cultural difference and cultural practices is not by pointing to the intrinsic values and timeless (how good?), But by pointing out the map of social relations (in whose interest?).
Background The development of Cultural Studies
In fact, cultural studies in simple terms as the study of culture as an object to make a critical study, was conducted by a number of cultural critics such as Michael Rogin and Walter Ben Michaels, though without using the label of cultural studies (cultural studies). It was only after the establishment of the Birmingham Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies, the study experienced teoritisasi by-as ordered by Stuart Hall, Richard Hoggart thinking, Raymond Williams, EP Thompson, as well as theories structuralist / post structuralist theory as the basis of this study, particularly in the UK.
Meanwhile Cornel West mentions names such as Thorstein Veblen, WE Du Bois, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and T.O. Matthiesen as peletak theoretical foundation for the study of American culture. As for Australia, Graeme Turner Ward Russell noted donations, Paul Willis, and John Docker. Of these three areas (English, United States and Australia), then show a different school in the next berkembangan.
And last, should not be forgotten that the development of cultural studies typically also known as schools of India (South Asia) who diteoritisasi by Leela Gandhi, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Homi K. Bhaba. Schools of Indian Studies (South Asia) was developed through Subaltern Studies Group (3) which is managed by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Besides disebaran Asia and Africa, we can still call the name of Frantz Fanon, and Edward W. Said, although these names, most do not live in third world countries are the basis teoritisasi they do.
Then if you are serious note, it would seem that cultural studies is an intellectual reaction to the growing pop culture that initially arising due to industrialization and urbanization as the sequence of the Industrial Revolution in England. But why is not this simple, because in the end there is a shift in cultural studies at pop culture.
Mathew Arnold, Leavis and the Frankfurt School thought that pop culture as a result of industrialization industrialized mass culture, the culture of today's study looked at pop culture as a positive expression "ordinary people" to survive. This shift occurred because of fundamental changes in the underlying landscape of contemporary cultural studies of this era. At least there are three conditions listed by Melani Budianta, namely: First, the social psychological conditions. Social scientists, humanities felt himself does not mean the success of the intellectual / scientist in a high level of capitalist society. So they (the intellectual humanist) feel the need for a new paradigm that is not trapped in the field of literary studies, politics, economics or sociology separately.
Second, the two conditions set by the coloring posmodernisme cultural products and intellectual discourse in the latter half of the 20th century. This Posmodern discourse undermine the barriers between high culture and products low is the foundation of modernist art, and the last third, the development of theories of structural post that helped destroy the dividing wall between the disciplines. This study in the language of Clifford Geertz considered a mix between a discourse that resulted in discipline goyahnya labels and genre classification.
Cultural Studies, An Assessment finality?
Cultural studies as studies that tried to answer the paradigmatic crisis plaguing the social sciences today, is like a glass of water in the middle of a long thirst humanities intellectuals. Presumption body of science as the sole objective of knowledge building suffered a major crisis, though earlier, science has made all the disciplines that have attempted to get legitimacy.
Even now the opposite occurs, the expansion of the keranah humanities perspective for this is not a garapnya region. If the previous paradigm of the body of science in the form of scientific method to pentaskih single truth for all knowledge building, whether it is engineering, physics, and chemistry or economics, sociology, literature and anthropology, it is now very concept of the humanities such as "discourse" (4), " representation "(5) and discursive models-other interpretive become a tool to read and verify the economic phenomena, social, political, and even chemistry, physics and engineering as a" text "(6) alone.
Apparently George Ritzer metatheorizing sociology region has penetrated the wider region, and widen and silencing a single paradigm of science Thomas Kuhn. Discipline was no longer flourish in a linear line of Normal science I-anomalies-crisis-revolution-Normal Science II, but still full of randomness in the form of phenomenal leaps terprediksikan sometimes not before.
But, once again as a model of research and assessment, cultural studies can not be a final and claimed himself as the new truth verification tool that replaces the scientific approach. Because at the time that happens, then this study could indeed be said of suicide, because of this cultural studies, in fact, is the process for finding a paradigmatic response to the crisis sweeping paradigm of social studies for this.
Areas worked on Cultural Studies
In his book, Cultural Studies and Its Theoretical Legacies, Stuart Hall says that there must be something at stake in cultural studies to distinguish it from other subject areas. It stake by Hall (7) are the links with the cultural studies issues of power and politics, with the need for change and representation of the social groups are marginalized, especially concerning the representation of class, gender and race (even age , disability, nationality, etc.).
By using this Hall perspective, it can be concluded that cultural studies is not a neutral knowledge building, even assuming that the production of knowledge building is a political act. This has resulted in this study penetrated almost all areas of knowledge. Simply put, working on areas of cultural studies can be mapped into three, followed by mapping Budianta Melani, the region is:
a. Postcolonial-National-Transnational
This classification is a representative of three days or a phase of history that challenges and seems to be imperative for the country traversed by the third world countries. While they had to escape colonialism, at the same time they are in force to formulate a national culture amid globalization transnational phenomenon. This was a condition of the study area is challenging. For this study, take the example for instance, Edward W. Said (8) with his Orientalism, and Bennedict Anderson (9) in his Imaginary Communities.
b. Gender, Race and Ethnicity (10)
Setting norms and behaviors that are treated on the basis of gender differences (gender), Race and Ethnicity is a historical process. These all are culturally through, women's magazines, literature, advertising, television, and state and religious institutions, this is an interesting study for the study of culture. For example the study analyze the tradition of Paul Gilroy ethnic absolutism / religion and nationalism of the various texts of fiction, history, and black leaders and American English.
c. Literary / Pop Culture, Readers and Institutions
This type of cultural studies enriches historical sociology of literature and literary texts in relation to research systems in determining the existence (reproduction, protector, authors, readers, critics). Put such studies David Glover and Cora Caplan who reviewed a number of assumptions behind the crime fiction genre.
Bit Base Theory
In the analysis of the region garapnya, cultural studies using a few basic theory building. Starting from Mathew Arnold's cultural theory to the cultural theories posmodern as already mentioned in the second part of this paper. The following mapping membangunkajian basic theory of culture to this day. The mapping is followed on what is done by John Storey (11).
First, Arnoldian flow, this flow analysis rested on the theory that culture was built by Mathew Arnold, which he says that culture has several meanings, namely 1) that culture is a form of knowledge in the form of thoughts and statements in the world, an ability to know that The best, 2) culture as well as what difahaminya best, 3) culture is a mental and spiritual application of the best and last 4) Cultural Studies into what is the best search. The Arnoldian summary assumes that culture is an effort to find the best and attempt to make knowledge useful to mankind.
With this kind of cultural understanding, the Arnoldian then mapped that culture was divided into three classes based on the community who subscribes, the Barbarian class (aristocracy), Philistine class (middle class) and the Populace class (working class). Well, according to Arnold's culture carefully will serve to direct the aristocracy and middle class to follow the path of evolution of the continuum of human nature, while the other is a function of culture must be brought to the working class to control them, because the working class anarchy diangapnya a trend yangdiangapnya threaten the existence of culture and civilization. To civilize the working class, then their children should be in civilization (taught) through education before they can be arranged (instructions). As mentioned in the book, entitled Matthew Arnold's Culture and Anarchy that "education is a way of culture".
Second, Leavisisme flow, the flow is based on the FR Leavis, Q.D. Leavis and Denis Thompon. This flow is not too much different with the analysis that assumes that Arnoldian cultural crisis has occurred largely due to the development of working-class culture in the form of anarchy, and to maintain cultural position as the best statements, the Laevisis suggests "people ... should be trained to differentiate and survive "the attack pop culture.
In conducting the project cultural quality is maintained, then the Leavisis believes that this is only possible if it was done by a minority group, "the culture is always preserved in the minority" and that minority groups were the intellectuals, this kind of Leavisis. They, the Leavisis analyzes that there has been a shift in culture, especially in a language that Leavis says his book Culture and dalan Encironment that "Homework is for the reader is that the decline in the value of this language is not only a matter of words alone, but he is a decline in the value of emotional life and quality of life. "
Third, the third group which says that intellectuals are the guardians of culture besides Leavisis is Arnoldian and American culture research group, represented by Andrew Ross, he said that "perhaps for the first time in American history, intellectual as a social group, have the opportunity to realize himself themselves as agents of cultural, moral and national political leadership ".
Ross identified that serious debate has occurred between the three opposing positions among American intellectuals in the highlight cultural issues, namely 1) The position of the Liberal Aesthetic deploring the fact that there is about the choices the majority of the population who choose texts and cultural practices of second and third level (culture low / mass culture / pop culture), and this group would prefer the text and the practice of high culture. 2) The position of the corporate liberal or progressive evolutionists claim that the pop culture of software functions to socialize the people at the pleasure of consumption in the new capitalist society, consumerist, and 3) position or a socialist who sees mass culture as a form of or means to control social.
Fourth, The Kulturalisme - Structuralism - Post-structuralism. 1) The kulturalisme (12) in culture, represented by the group The Birmingham Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies, for example, Raymond Williams, Richard Hoggart and EP Thompson, more culturally patterned historical materialism that explores the culture in the context of material conditions when he was in the production and consumption.
Simply put Williams (13) says that the analysis of this cultural materialism is an analysis of all forms of labeling in the actual conditions and meaning when he was in production. He then shows the terms that can be used in investigating the culture. First, the institutions that produce arts and culture. Second, education formations, movements and factions in the production of culture. Third, the forms of production, including all its manifestations. Fourth, identification and cultural forms, including the specificity of cultural products, aesthetic purposes. Fifth, reproduction in space and time travel. And sixth, the way organization.
From the way this thinking is found that the culturalist emphasize that meaning is a product of the human (as active agents, human agents) in a historical context (14), meanwhile, the structuralism is more interested in talking about labeling practices in which meaning is a product of structure or regularity-predictable regularity that lies outside the reach of humans (human agents).
Establishes base in theory, the structuralist analysis of language borrowed Ferdinand de Saussure which was developed by Levi Strauss in the social area. If kulturalisme diachronic approach emphasizes the text, so the synchronous approach Structuralists forward. With synchronous analysis of language, then the structuralist, seeks to stabilize the meaning of meaning by organizing opsisi internally in binary.
This is where the pressure points of the Post-structuralist attacks (15) against structuralism, Derrida and Foucault believes that the meaning is not stable, he was always in the process. Meaning not only found in one word, sentence or a text, but he found flowing in the relationship between the text of a intertekstualis conditions.
Fifth, a group of Marxism, began classical Marxism, Frankfurt School, Althusserian, until the Hegemony Cramscian also laid the basis for the study of cultural theory emerging today. In Marx's view, pop culture is not more than one form of the ideological superstructure that stands above the economic infrastructure in the form of ownership of production factors.
In more remote, this approach gave birth to the mind of Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno that has happened the mass culture industry that produces two products of culture, namely cultural uniformity, and uniformity of the system as a whole and in all parts, all mass culture is similar and predictable.
Meanwhile, one of the Althusserian variant As with Marx's theory is more focused discussion on the ideological perspective. Louis Althusser (16) thinkers of this variant has two theses on ideology sebagauimana written by Nuriani Juliastuti (17), namely; first thesis says that ideology is an imaginary representation of the relationship between the individual and the condition of real existence.
Represented in situ rather than in real relationships that guide individual existence, but the imaginary relation between the individual and a situation in which they live in it. The second thesis says that the representation of ideas that shape the ideology is not only a spiritual existence, but also of material existence. In this second thesis, Althusser was attacked positions held by the determinant of the base building mendeterminasi superstructure.
In fact, he said, could have a superstructure of the building taken over and kedududkan base determines the superstructure model welcome. This was already in the explanatory by Friederich Engels who became eksplanator (explanation) the writings of Karl Marx sepeninggalnya.
Variant of Marxist thought that too much influence cultural analysis, born of an Italian Socialist thinker, Antonio Gramsci. With his theory of hegemony, Gramsci says that in doing mastery or dominance, then the dominant group using two ways, namely aggression and hegemony. If aggression approach emphasizes the delivery of physical force an open conflict, the hegemony prefer to limit the conflict and channel it ideologically safe.
The theory of hegemony (18) shows a control building and the dominance of very fine, namunpun so, the latest development, has emerged the concept of hegemony of neo-gramscian who said that conflict in trying to limit and distributed by the hegemony was born in the form of incorporation dilaketika done pendominasi party with resistance by the dominated.
Sixth, laskap thinking too much influence which cultural studies is a kind of feminism denganberbagai variants, ranging from radical feminism, Marxist and liberal feminism to the style of feminism cangkeman Kris Budiman. This variant of feminism and then no longer be explicitly mapped such memberika pegaruhnya dala, even this perspective actually shifted and no longer be an exclusive discourse cultivated by women.
Even more striking than the influence of color feminist discourse in cultural studies is the attempt to describe what a feminist talk about culture, what kind of impact experienced by women in the developing and the growing pop culture. But one thing that until now has not cleared by the study of feminism is a discourse on masculinity, a study of men, whereas in interdisciplinary cultural studies, anti disiplinar, a posdisipliner-disiplinar even this kind of study is justified by the movement feminism.
Seventh, the latest thinking much impact on the development of cultural studies is posmodernis discourse, this discourse many teoritisasi by Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard and Fredric Jameson. Lyotard's perspective focuses on differences and plurality of all fields and theoretical discourse that is energetically attacked the theory and methods and universalist totalis. Lyotard's focusing on the function of narrative in the discourse on scientific knowledge with a massive challenge meta-narratives of truth.
In the meantime, Baudrillard said that now we are in a world that has no clear boundaries or economic antarawilayah production with ideological and cultural areas. This occurs because the image artifacts, representations and even a sense of cultural psychic structure became part of the world economy. Human thought into an area without clear origins, a region hyperrealitas (19) are in production through the process of simulation (20).
In fact we live in a tangle of signs that do not represent any reality, a simulacrum situation (21), where a reference mark for himself. Baudrillard on the simulacrum explanation, in further explained by Jameson with trying to explain the constitutive posmodernisme picture. According to him, this time is posmodernis pastis culture, the satisfaction of playing historical allusion.
Pastis condition was described as a mixed state with a parody, both involve imitation (22) and mimicry (23), but the difference, parody usually still have a hidden motive, while the pastis is a "blank parody" or "copy blank" is not has meant nothing.
Contestation for Poststrukturalisme
In the development of cultural studies, the basis of the theory's most influential and in use in this aspect is kulturalisme, structuralism and poststrukturalisme. Kulturalisme (24) put forward an empirical approach, which is emphasized in the culturalist tradition, exploring how humans are actively produce cultural meanings.
This Kulturalisme get loud criticism from the structuralism (25) a more principled anti-humanist and put that man is the product of building structures that are beyond the reach of humans. Humans in the structuralist view, is the result of construction of these structures. The structuralism, as the saying by Space - more interested in talking about labeling practices in which meaning is a product of the structure or regularity-predictable regularity that lies beyond the reach of humans (human agents).
In the meantime, post structuralism structuralism to follow the dictum that places man as the product structure, is also suing the meaning internally organized in a binary opposition, which means the same as saying that the meaning is stable. Meanwhile, in view of the post structuralism, the meaning is not stable as in the picture, meaning always in the process. Construction of meaning is the result of the relationship between text that is intertekstualis. The meaning is not the result of a single word, sentence or text that is special.
In the corner ketertundaan meaning embraced by post structuralism this is a direct overlap with cultural studies. Cultural studies discussion of methods to promote interdisciplinary studies, cross-, trans-and even anti-discipline, necessitates the result (conclusion) is always delayed. Because all the findings of the study is merely a construction point of view or a particular discipline and not necessarily in accordance with the other disciplines.
In the perspective of structuralism, today's cultural world dominated by the culture of capitalism through the process of incorporation (26) and commodification (27). The project is working in the study of globalization and free markets, so it can be seen how the whole world and the social space is sucked into the unity model of cultural logic of work called capitalism. There has been a cultural imprealisme from west to east.
But if the observant, this condition when the highlight of kulturalisme perspective, will be found that the victory of capitalism is a false victory, because it turns out we can never really be in perfect control. Humans have the ability to do kreolisasi (28) and mimicry (29) so that the culture of birth is not a building but rather a cultural imprealisme cultural hybridity (30).
The fight occurred between the conclusion kulturalisme and structuralism perspective, will find the estuary in the discourse of post structuralism. Post structuralism discourse pushed into the conclusion that there are aspects of mediation (31), in this space interaction between the symbol that will bersintesis and find new expression.
This is the contestation (32) where all kinds of paradigm, approach, perspective, perspectives and conclusions on the jajakan and offer to be attractive menus for noisy crowded interests and power struggle surrounding. Post structuralism contestation open space is as wide as for the contestants, without distinguishing the origin of paradigmatic. Arena is an arena of contestation trading, but trading is already experiencing domestication.
1) For more about the Birmingham Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies, see Luna Blue, Birmingham Center. Published in newsletters KEY No. 2, September 1999. www.kunci.or.id, December 15, 2003
2) Amaradani, Cultural Studies, the article. Published in newsletters KEY No. 1, July 1999. www.kunci.or.id, December 15, 2003
3) Sardar, Ziauddin and borin Van Loon, Know Cultural Studies For Beginners. Mizan. Bandung. October 2001. Cet. I. pp. 80
4) in-depth discussion of discourse analysis, please see borin Ziauddin Sardar and Van Loon, op. cit. pp. 14
5) The representation is a concept that has some sense. He is a social process of 'Representing'. He is also a product of social processes "Representing". The representation refers both to the process or the product of interpretation of a sign. Representation also means the process of changing ideological concepts are abstract in the forms of concrete. For more details, please see Nuriani Juliastuti, Representation . published in the newsletters KEY No. 4, March 2000. www.kunci.or.id, December 15, 2003 as well borin Ziauddin Sardar and Van Loon, ibid. pp. 13
6) Sardar, Ziauddin and borin Van Loon, ibid. pp. 12
7) Further Stuart Hall thought of Cultural Studies, see Ziauddin Sardar and Van Loon borin, ibid. pp. 35-38
8) Blue. Luna, Colonialism Study. Published in newsletters KEY No. 8, September 2000. www.kunci.or.id, December 15, 2003 see also borin Ziauddin Sardar and Van Loon, ibid. pp. 106-114
9) Juliastuti, Nuriani. Ben Anderson Cultural Approach. www.kunci.or.id, December 18, 2003
10) Sardar. Ziauddin and borin Van Loon, op. pp. 122-153
11) Storey, John. Theory Culture and Pop Culture. Qalam. Yogyakarta. 2002. Cet. I
12) Space. Kulturalisme Vs. Structuralism. Published in newsletters KEY No. 6-7, May-June 2000. www.kunci.or.id, December 15, 2003
13) Space, Raymond Williams. Published in newsletters KEY No. 6-7, May-June 2000. www.kunci.or.id, December 15, 2003
14) Space. loc.cit
15) Space. ibid.
16) French philosopher, lived between 1918-1990, imports into the Marxist structuralism in an attempt to make it a science "science". For more about Louis Althusser, see Nuriani Juliastuti. Louis Althusser. Published in newsletters KEY No. 4, March 2000. www.kunci.or.id, December 15, 2003 as well borin Ziauddin Sardar and Van Loon, op. pp. 44-47
17) Juliastuti. Nuriani. Althusser's thesis of ideology. Published in newsletters KEY No. 4, March 2000. www.kunci.or.id, December 15, 2003, also St. Sunardi, Semiotics Negativa, Canal. Yogyakarta. 2002. pp. 144-149
18) Hegemony is a term in populerkan by Antonio Gramsci, founder of the Italian Communist Party, which describes the dissemination of ideas, values, and beliefs are not imposed from above, not well developed in a way that is free and not on purpose, but the negotiated through a series of perjuampaan and clash (clash of the mean intellectual clash) between the classes. More information, see borin Ziauddin Sardar and Van Loon, op.cit. pp. 48-51
19) Hyperrealitas is a reality that has no reference or origin. This Hyperrealitas created through a process of simulation. For more details, see Rachael Noviani, Understanding the Middle Way Ad. Pustaka Pelajar. Yogyakarta, Cet. I, July 2002. pp. 63-72
20) Simulation is the process of proliferation in the form of the creation of objects (the models of reality) is simulatif, namely that the underlying object by reference that are not obvious or obscure origins. Further simulations in perhadap often confronted with the concept of representation. For more details, see Rachael Noviani, ibid. pp. 63-72
21) Simulakrum is produced by the simulation process. This space contains false realities (hyperrealitas). Simulakrum itself is a duplication of the duplication that does not include the reality or the original reference in the process of production or reproduction. For more details, see Rachael Noviani, Ibid. pp. 63-72
22) Imitation is the attempt of imitation or borrowing of a particular cultural product by other cultural communities. More information see Space, Identity Hybrid. Published in newsletters KEY No. 8, September 2000. www.kunci.or.id, December 15, 2003
23) Mimicry is a concept proposed Homi K. Bhaba to describe the process of imitation / borrowing various elements of culture. According to the mimicry does not show the dependence of the colonized to the colonized, the dependence of color to white, but the impersonator enjoying / playing with the ambivalence that occurs in the process of imitation. This is because mimicry always indicate the meaning of "not right" and "wrong place", he imitation and subversion. Dengan begitu mimikri bisa dipandang sebagai strategi menghadapi dominasi. Lebih lanjut lihat Antariksa, ibid.
24) Kulturalisme merupakan pendekatan budaya yang menekankan bahwa makna merupakan produk dari manusia (sebagai agen yang aktif, human agents) dalam konteks sejarah. Lebih lanjut lihat, Antariksa, loc.cit.
25) Strukturalisme bisa dilacak kembali pada karya-karya Emille Durkheim yang menolak anggapan empirisis bahwa pengetahuan merupakan derivasi langsung dari pengalaman. Strukturalisme yang dikenal sekarang adalah strukturalisme Ferdinand de Saussure dan Levi-Strauss yang menjelaskan bahwa produksi makna merupakan efek dari struktur terdalam dari bahasa, dan kebudayaan bersifat analog dengan struktur bahasa, yang diorganisasikan secara internal dalam oposisi biner : hitam-putih, baik-buruk, lelaki-perempuan. Lebih lanjut lihat, Antariksa, loc.cit.
26) Inkorporasi merujuk kepada suatu proses sosial dimana kelas yang dominan mengambil elemen-elemen kebudayaan kelas subordinat dan menggunakannya untuk memperkuat status quo. Lebih lanjut, lihat Antariksa, Inkorporasi/Komodifikasi. Dimuat dalam newsletters KUNCI No. 5, April 2000. www.kunci.or.id, 15 Desember 2003
27) Komodifikasi adalah upaya memproduksi segala sesuatu –termasuk kesadaran- menjadi komoditas-komoditas yang bisa di perjual-belikan. Lebih lanjut, lihat Antariksa, ibid.
28) Kreolisasi adalah sebuah proses budaya dalam bentuk penyerapan elemen-elemen kebudayaan lain, tetapi dipraktekkan dengan tidak mempertimbangkan makna aslinya. Lebih lanjut, lihat Antariksa, loc.cit.
29) Lihat catatan kaki no 28
30) Hibriditas kebudayaan adalah pemahaman bahwa kebudayaan dan identitas selalu merupakan pertemuan dan percampuran berbagai kebudayan dan identitas yang berbeda-beda. Batas-batas kebudayaan yang mapan dikaburkan dan dibuat tidak stabil. Antariksa, loc.cit.
31) sebuah ruang budaya (culture field) dimana segala macam simbol dari berbagai latar identitas budaya bisa saling bertemu. Lebih lanjut, lihat R. Kristiawan, Mediasi; Fakta Pasca Hegemoni. Dimuat dalam newsletters KUNCI No. 8, September 2000. www.kunci.or.id, 15 Desember 2003
32) Lihat mediasi, sebuah ruang budaya (culture field) dimana segala macam simbol dari berbagai latar identitas budaya bisa saling bertemu dan menjajakan diri sebagai kontestan yang memiliki hak dan kewajiban serta kemungkinan-kemungkinan kultural yang sama.
titah kasman pada 4:08 AM
